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Banyak orang sadar bahwa hal-hal dan peristiwa yang terjadi tidaklah sama dengan sebelumnya. Anda tak akan terjun ke sungai yang sama untuk kedua kali, he maintained. Para filsuf dan pemerhati melalui proses waktu percaya bahwa masyarakat sedang bergerak menyesuaikan diri dengan hukum-hukum yang tak dapat dicegah maupuin diubah, that there was a driving force that drove society onward. In modern times we have looked towards the evolution of
society as a progressive one. Umat manusia, sebagai hasil pengembangan rasio dan pemikiran sains teknologi pengetahuan , tidak hanya menaklukkan bumi tempat kita tinggal tapi juga mulai menjelasaaah jagatraya.
New Times
On the other hand, Phil Cohen describes what he terms ‘the post-modernist
overview' as one "which does not privilege any of the elements in play …
but juggles around trying to keep as many ideas in the air at once as it
can'. He warns, however, that ‘in the wrong hands it can quickly
degenerate into collage and pastiche in which everything is rendered
equivalent in the cultural supermarket of ideas' (Cohen 1997:390/1). This
relativism with everything being rendered equivalent or anything going
with anything sits uncomfortably in a world that can be quite frightening
for those who hanker after an ordered world. Zygmunt Bauman, one of the
foremost writers on postmodernism, sheds some light on its ability to
debunk old established ideas and discredit outdated modes of thinking when
he describes its ‘all-deriding, all-eroding, all dissolving
destructiveness'. Postmodernity, according to Bauman ‘does not seek to
substitute one truth for another, one life ideal for another … It braces
itself for a life without truths, standards and ideals' (Bauman 1992:vii,
viii, ix). It is quite easy to see how the rise of religious
fundamentalism, whether Christian, Islamic or Jewish, seems attractive to
some people afraid that their world is being undermined. The rise of the
Right-wing ‘Moral Majority' in the United States, the hankering after a
return to ‘Victorian values' in Britain are also examples of how some
people have reacted to their fear of change.
Implications
However, what does this mean for the informal educator? Do we, in our
day-to-day practice, work on the assumption that values are relative? Can
we talk about core values? If difference is celebrated, what about
commonality, mutuality and co-operation? How do we work in a
multi-cultural, multi-ethnic, multi-faith and pluralist society? Can we
talk about informal educators working for ‘the common good'? Is there such
a thing as ‘the common good'?
Certainly, these dilemmas are very real. On the one hand, most of us would
accept that in any decent society we are all dependent on each other, that
we do share many things in common. However, this can appear extremely
bland to those who clearly see themselves to be different. It is very easy
to marginalize people by ignoring differences. We hear talk about the
Scottish nation, the Protestant (or Black) community, the Germans, ‘local
youth' etc. Who decides who is included in these descriptions and who is
excluded? The question of identity is crucial here.
In postmodernism, ‘identity is not unitary or essential, it is fluid or
shifting, fed by multiple sources and taking multiple forms' (Kumar
1997:98). We are all unique and have our own distinctiveness but we also
have much in common. Being aware of this is essential for informal
educators.
Difference and commonality
Take the notions of being black, gay or thin. These are identities that
are socially constructed, and given meaning by our fragmented society.
However, we have to ask ourselves the question why these socially
constructed categories are distinctive and not others. What is so special
about skin colour, sexuality or size that we proclaim them as different?
Different to what? By accepting these differences and, even more
importantly, celebrating these differences, are we not accepting the
status quo? He is black, she is gay, they are thin. So what? Are there no
grounds for mutuality and association? Should we not question these
differences rather than celebrate them?
On the other hand, I can see why, within a fragmented and divided society,
those who are regarded as different see those differences as something
that should be accepted and not a reason for discrimination or
marginalisation. Why shouldn't black people or gays and lesbians take
pride in their blackness or sexuality? Why shouldn't they organise
themselves to counter discriminatory practices in society?
There is a clear difference here in perspectives. Within the realms of
youth and community work, informal educators need to be able to respond
and influence the dialectic between commonality and difference. Too much
emphasis in our practice on commonality can lead us down the road to
ignoring the differences between individuals and the diversity of cultures
that abound in our localities and in our workplaces. Too much emphasis on
difference can lead us down the road to separation, segregation and
exclusion.
Welcoming cultural diversity within our changed society does not mean
accepting cultural practices and beliefs without question. It means
understanding them in context whilst at the same time working ‘not for
assimilation but for co-operation on the basis of difference … being in
touch with your cultural identity and pre-judgements, having a sense of
agency, and looking to an acceptance of diversity and a search for that
which is held in common' (Smith 1994:120/1).
Agency
This brings us to the question of human agency. We cab pose the question
as to whether society was an entity outside of individuals that acts upon
them or whether individuals act upon society. We might turn to the
problems that C.Wright Mills highlighted between personal troubles and
public issues and the need to see the relationship between the two.
However, postmodernist writers have tended to move the argument on
somewhat. Some of them are distinctively uneasy about the ability of human
beings to affect the world we live in. They see us as corks being tossed
about in a turbulent sea of change, being pushed one way then another with
no ability to affect the direction we want to go in. The human subject is
not inherently free ‘but hedged in on all sides by social determinations'
(Layder 1994:95). Michel Foucault, for example, argued at one point that
human societies can be seen as places in which forms of knowledge
(discourses) exercise power over us through the way we think and the way
we behave. The individual is no longer the source of meaning, in line with
Enlightenment thinking, but is ‘decentred'. This can be seen as being
extremely pessimistic from a humanistic perspective and is a view of human
agency that poses important questions for informal educators. Foucault did
modify his views somewhat so that he later saw discourses as foci for
struggle and resistance. However, the idea of the individual subject as a
creative autonomous being was certainly something that Foucault rejected.
This is clearly at odds with what many would see as one of the central
tenets of informal education – ‘the belief that people can take hold of
their lives, can make changes, that they are not helpless in the face of
structural forces' (Smith 1994:119).
Conclusion
In this piece we have looked at the changes that have taken place in
society over the last few decades and briefly examined the idea that we
have now entered into a new postmodern era. This new era has been
characterised by a rejection of absolute truths and grand narratives
explaining the progressive evolution of society. At the same time it has
brought to the surface a multitude of different perspectives on society
and an appreciation of different cultures. It has highlighted
globalisation on the one hand and localisation on the other, the
celebration of difference and the search for commonality.
Henry Giroux, in analysing some of the central assumptions that govern the
discourses of modernism and postmodernism together with postmodern
feminism, has summed up what these can mean for educators. In doing this,
he did not set up one against the others but tried to see how and where
they converged. He maintained that within these three traditions,
pedagogy offers educators an opportunity to develop a political project
that embraces human interests that move beyond the particularistic
politics of class, ethnicity, race and gender.
This is not a call to dismiss the postmodern emphasis on difference, as
much as it is an attempt to develop a radical democratic politics that
stresses difference within unity … The struggle against racism, class
structures, sexism, and other forms of oppression needs to move away
from simply a language of critique, and redefine itself as part of a
language of transformation and hope. This shift suggests that educators
combine with other cultural workers engaged in public struggles in order
to invent languages and provide critical and transformative spaces …
that offer new opportunities for social movements to come together. By
doing this, we can re-think, and re-experience democracy as a struggle
over values, practices, social relations, and subject positions that
enlarge the terrain of human capacities and possibilities as a basis for
a compassionate social order. (Giroux 1997:128/9)
Further reading
General texts - modernity and post-modernity
Anderson, P. (1998) The Origins of Postmodernity, London: Verso. 160
pages. Traces the genesis, consolidation and consequences of the notion of
the postmodern. Places postmodernism in the 'force field of a déclassé
bourgeoisie, the growth of mediatised technology and the historic global
defeat of the left symbolized by the end of the Cold War'. Views
postmodernism as the cultural logic of a multinational capitalism
'complacent beyond precedent'.
Beck, U. (1992) Risk Society. Towards a new modernity, London: Sage.
Translation of Beck's 1986 classic. Argue bahwa masyarakat industri barat society sedang bergerak into a 'post-Enlightenment' / post-Fordist phase and that this
involves a different modernity typified by reflexivity. Industrial society
is based on the distribution of goods, while that of a risk society on the
distribution of 'bads' ataupun bahaya-bahaya. Part one is concerned with 'Hidup di atas
kawah kemasyarakatan: the contours of the risk society; part two
looks to the individualization of social inequality: life forms and the
demise of tradition; and part three explores reflexive modernization: the
generalization of science and politics.
Berman, M. (1983) All That is Solid Melts into Air. The experience of
modernity, London: Verso. 320 pages. Very influential reading of modernity
(changing social and economic realities) and modernism in art, literature
and architecture.
Bernstein, R. J. (1991) The New Constellation. The ethical-political
horizons of modernity/postmodernity, Cambridge: Polity. 358 pages.
Exploration of modernity / post-modernity as a pervasive mood (a
Stimmung). Exploration of thinkers such as Heidegger, Derrida, Foucault,
Derrida, Rorty and Habermas.
Callinicos, A. (1989) Against Postmodernism: a Marxist critique,
Cambridge: Polity Press. Excellent critique of ‘post-modern' thinking.
Giddens, A. (1990) The Consequences of Modernity, Cambridge: Polity Press.
186 + xii pages. Giddens argues that we are living in a period of 'high'
rather than 'post' modernity. Examines themes of security versus risk; and
trust versus risk.
Harvey, D. (1990) The Condition of Postmodernity. An enquiry into the
origins of cultural change, Oxford: Blackwell. 378 + xii pages.
Controversial and refreshing critique of postmodernity - with a concern
for economic and cultural transformations. Part one deals with the passage
from modernity to postmodernity in popular culture; part two with
political-economic transformation; part three with the experience of space
and time; and part four with the condition of postmodernity.
Jameson, F. (1991) PostModernism. Or, the cultural logic of late
capitalism, London: Verso. 460 pages. Key text exploring Jameson's
position.
Jameson, F. (1998) The Cultural Turn. Selected readings on the postmodern
1983 - 1998, London: Verso. 128 pages. Good collection of pieces that
provide an introduction to Jameson's pivotal work around postmodernism.
Lash, S. and Friedman, J. (eds.) (1992) Modernity and Identity, Oxford:
Blackwell. 379 pages. Useful collection exploring postmodernity as not the
'end of the subject' but the transformation and creation of new forms of
subjectivity. Part one deals with cosmopolitan narratives; part two with
representation and the transformation of identity; part three with spaces
of self and society; and part four looks to modernity and the voice of the
other.
Lyotard, J-F. (1984) The Postmodern Condition: A report on knowledge,
Manchester: Manchester University Press. 110 + xxv pages. Translation of
Lyotard's very influential 1979 work. Looks at the status of science,
technology and the arts, the significance of technocracy, and the way and
flow of information are controlled in the Western world. Explores
legitimation, language games, modernism, the postmodern perspective,
narrative and scientific knowledge, deligitimation, research and
education, and postmodern science as the search for instabilities. An
appendix contains an essay on 'What is postmodernism?'
Modernity, post-modernity and education
Briton, D. (1996) The Modern Practice of Adult education. A post-modern
critique, New York: SUNY Press. 156 + xiv pages. Challenges depoliticized
notions of adult education and argues for a 'postmodern pedagogy of
engagement'.
Edwards, R. (1997) Changing Places? Flexibility, lifelong learning and a
learning society, London: Routledge. 214 + x pages. Edwards looks at some
of the key discourses that he claims have come to govern the education and
training of adults. He looks at the context for such changes and their
contested nature. The focus is on how the idea of a learning society has
developed in recent years. The usual trip through postmodern thinking is
followed by an analysis of the ways in which specific discourses of change
have been constructed to provide the basis for a growing interest in
lifelong learning and a learning society.
Giroux, H. (1997) ‘Crossing the Boundaries of Educational Discourse:
Modernism, Postmodernism, and Feminism' in A. H. Halsey, H. Lauder, P.
Brown and A. S. Wells (eds.) Education: Culture, Economy, and Society,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Usher, R., Bryant, I. and Johnston, R. (1997) Adult Education and the
Postmodern Challenge. Learning beyond the limits, London: Routledge. 248 +
xvi pages. Follow up to Adult Education as Theory, Practice and Research,
this book focuses on the changing contexts of adult learning and the need
to go 'beyond the limits' of certain current adult education orthodoxies.
Examines adult learning in postmodernity; citizenship; governmentality and
practice; knowledge-power; self and experience; theory-practice; and
research in adult education.
Usher, R. and Edwards, R. (1994) Postmodernism and Education, London:
Routledge. 246 + x pages. Examines key writers like Lacan, Derida,
Foucault and Lyotard. Looks particularly to the self/subject.
Also mentioned
Bauman, Z. (1992) Intimations of Postmodernity, London: Routledge.
Bell, D. (1973) The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, London: Heinemann.
Cohen, P. (1997) Rethinking the Youth Question: Education, Labour and
Cultural Studies, London: Macmillan.
Hall, S. (1996) ‘The meaning of New Times' in D. Morley and K-H Chen (eds)
Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies, London: Routledge.
Kumar, K. (1997) ‘The Post-Modern Condition' in A. H. Halsey, H. Lauder,
P. Brown and A. S. Wells (eds.) Education: Culture, Economy, and Society,
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lash, S. and Urry, J. (1987) The End of Organised Capitalism, Cambridge:
Polity Press.
Layder, D. (1994) Understanding Social Theory. London: Sage Publications.
Leonard, P. (1997) Postmodern Welfare: Reconstructing an Emanicipatory
Project, London: Sage Publications.
Smith, M. K. (1994) Local Education: Community, conversation, praxis,
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Prepared by Barry Burke
© Barry Burke 2000
Booklist first published July 1996; article May 2000. Last update:
30-Jan-2005
3. Segala pemikiran yang hendak merevisi modernisme, tidak dengan menolak
modernisme itu secara total, melainkan dengan memperbaharui premis-premis
modern di sana-sini. Katakanlah ini lebih merupakan kritik-kritik imanen
terhadap modernisme dalam rangka mengatasi berbagai konsekwensi negatifnya.
Misalnya, mereka tidak menolak sains pada dirinya sendiri, melainkan hanya
sains sebagai ideologi atau Scientisme saja dimana kebenaran ilmiahlah yang
dianggap kebenaran yang paling sahih. Bagaimanapun, tetap diakui
sumbangan besar modernisma bagi hidup manusia umumnya seperti: terangkatnya
rasionalitas, bebas dari keterikatan, pentingnya pengalaman, dsb.
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